Drawing on a wide range of examples to demonstrate how easy it is to use such software, this guide is full of useful hints and tips on how to manage research more efficiently and effectively, including: - Formatting transcripts for maximum coding efficiency in Microsoft Word - Using features of Word to organize the analysis of data and to facilitate efficient qualitative coding - Synchronizing codes, categories, and important concepts between Microsoft Word and Microsoft Access - Efficiently storing and analyzing the qualitative data in Microsoft Excel - Creating flexible analytic memos in Access that help lead the researcher to final conclusions Ideal for those students or researchers who don't want to invest in expensive specialised software packages, this guide will be an invaluable companion for anyone embarking on their own research project.
Drawing on a multimethod approach, Conducting Qualitative Research of Learning in Online Spaces explores how to design and conduct diverse studies in online environments.
Authors Hannah R. The text shows researchers how they can draw upon a variety of theoretical frameworks, methodological approaches, and data sources. Examples of qualitative research in online spaces, along with guiding questions, support readers at every phase of the research process.
The primary resources are a set of online, publically available video-recorded interviews produced by the editor and contributors to support student learning. The text offers useful descriptions of how and why research questions are formulated and explains the importance of selecting appropriate methods for research investigations. As well as covering key topics such as ethics, literature reviews and interviewing, the book also describes precisely how research reports using qualitative methods are written up, in line with the appropriate conventions within psychology.
New to this edition are additional collection methods, a new section on analysis and interpretation, more emphasis on participatory strategies, and suggestions for evaluating quality and enhancing reflexivity incorporated throughout the text.
Each chapter is written by a gifted researcher who: defines their topic and the context of their research, defines key themes and processes, provides examples, explores theory, and shares their excitement of discovery. A detailed book on carrying out qualitative research that students will find useful as a reference book.
Skip to main content. Due to global supply chain disruptions, we recommend ordering print titles early. Courses: Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods. Download flyer. Description Contents Reviews Popular in its first edition for its clear delineation of the issues and the way it prepared readers for Doing Qualitative Research , particularly in health settings, this new second edition will show readers new ways of knowing, how to ask questions at multiple system levels from global to family to the cell and the incursive interaction between these levels, and ways to expand existing research approaches.
A Multimethod Typology and Qualitative Roadmap. A Template Organizing Style of Interpretation. A Case Study Approach. Studying What Makes a Difference. Perspectives on the Future. Qualitative Health Research. Without realizing it, I had learned This is the point at which, in an extension of research into pragmatic to speak to the men of [the ward] in the same way that they talked to each other. But it was only by virtue of self-observation that I became suffiCiently aware in a common space of coexistence.
Making reference to such a space should of Its prevalence to regard it as a phenomenon central to my study' ; give readers the possibility, which combinative ethnography has temporarily emphasis added.
Representing such a space also answers the concern to totalize of the ward picture I was ultimately to assemble. However, at the time that I ethnographic data in the framework of a collective entity, once the schemas recorded this observation, I was not yet aware of the patterned interconnections of belongingness typical of integrative ethnology have been abandoned. At what point did I begin to see the ward in a coherently structured way?
In the sense of month and day, I cannot really answer that question. It also involved a process of attitude learning very much akin to what social 1. We can, for example, refer to the classical manuals of Griaule , Maget nature, and that their characteristic properties, like the unknown causes on which or Mauss Durkheim, EVIdence about working-class lifestyles are remarkable in this respect in their 2.
This last argument is reinforced, on the epistemological leve! Even Navel, ; Wei! The sociological objective of this tradition was an attempt to understand the new reports, in spite of the fact that they actually exist Collins, ; Knorr-Cetina, ; urban space emerging as a result of industrialization and the double phenomenon Latour and Woolgar, An implicit part of the ethnographer's condition is contment wIth Its multiple ethnic components, on the other.
Chicago, with its that slhe has to resolve these tensions as they appear. On the opposition between monograph and statistics, see Desrosieres The aim was to analyse the ways in which this 5.
Fox, This separation is achieved via an initial work on oneself. Then too, I had to admit that I felt more. When I found myself rationalizing in this way, I realized. The central method used is the case study, which IS based essentially on a life history and, to a lesser extent, on non-structured that I would have to make a break. Only if I lived in Cornerville would I ever be mterviews using the actual words of the subject and all sorts of personal documents able to understand it and be accepted by it' Whyte, It is clearly shown in the example in the appendix of Bosk Alongside these exercise of judgement.
A good example is Strauss et aJ. Mrs Price in the framework of an analysis of the trajectories of cumulative mess in 1 7. The fieldworker's position is different from the empathetic position of the the hospital environment. This space may bring together contemporaries who live at the same point in history. Referring to Sombart's analysis of 'the cultural stranger', he distinguishes between The 'sociological stranger' ment of automated techniques allowing a continuous movement back and forth is a stranger with a particular status as commonly used by lawyers, doctors, social between encoding of material and an ethnographic attentiop to its particularities workers, public school counsellors, etc.
The second, which he used much more Chateauraynaud, This is an ordinary relationship in For the researcher: 'it provides an opportunity for exploring dIfferent lmes of work allowed him to see and bring to light the work done by aspects of human nature not ordinarily revealed' and has the effect of a 'catharsis'. For an argument This ethnographic relationship allows the field worker to access revelations that supporting the need for close observation in order to apprehend the intensity of Cressey calls 'impersonal confessions'.
The work of processing these data can benefit from the development of automated of techmcal systems, see Dodier b. Recommended r..
On the critique of statistical totalization and its limitations, see Dodier See, for example, the enumerations made in Becker et al. For developments on this point, and more particularly concerning interactionism and ethnomethodology, and taking a critical approach to this referring back to shared objects, see Piette See for instance Calion and Latour It is worth pointing out that in a recent work Boltanski and Chiapello analyse the emergence of a new city 'the city of projects' la Cite 'par projets' , linked to the latest developments of capitalism.
At the very least, these people are in each other's horizon without this necessarily being reciprocal, as in the scene analysed by Boltanski based on an action-related schema, of the television viewer faced with the sight of REFER ENCES another person's suffering. Encounter-driven relations can be distinguished from relations of interdependence, which includes all those situations where the action Anderson, N. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Paris: Seuil. Baszanger, 1. See for instance the work of Goffman on shifts in 'framing', the analyses of ', Symbolic Interaction, 21 4 : Strauss et al.
From the laboratory to the clinic. New cost of moving between different 'common worlds' in Boltanski and Thevenot's. NJ: Rutgers University Press. BrunswIck, model Becker, H. Students' Culture We might note the observations of Thevenot on the constitution of familiarity In MedIcal School. Bessy, C. Pour une sociologie de la Favret-Saada, J. Paris: Metailie. Ie bocage. Paris: Gallimard. Boltanski, L. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press l'action. Cambridge and New Gadamer, H.
York: Cambridge University Press. Geertz, C. New York: Basic Books. Les economies de la grandeur. Paris: University Press. Glaser, B. Chicago: Aldine. Bosk, C. Managing medical failure. Chicago and London: Goffman, E. University of Chicago Press. Garden City, NY: Anchor. Calion, M. New York: Sociological Review. Certeau, M. Griaule, M. Paris: PUF. Knorr-Cetina, K. Oxford: Pergamon. Chateauraynaud, F. Une sociologie des conflits de Latour, B. Une technologie litteraire pour les sciences sociales.
Latour, B. The production ofscientific facts. Clifford, J. Leiris, M. Paris: Gallimard original edition Paris: La Decouverte. California Press. Linhart, K [,'etabli. Paris: Minuit. Collins, H.
London: McEvoy, S. Maget, M. La realitC sociale en constructions. Paris: metropolitaine. Malinowski, B. Marcus, G. Essai sur l'enquete hCrodoteenne. Anthropology, 1 1 : Mauss, M. Paris: Payot. Desrosieres, A The politics of large numbers: a history of statistical reasoning. Moerman, M. Sudnow, ed. New Dodier, N.
Le cas des inspecteurs et des medecins du York: The Free Press. Navel, G. Paris: Stock republished by Folio Gallimard. Dodier, N. L' observation des details. Platt, J. A sociological origin, myth and history', Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, October.
Ricoeur, P. Elements of a sociological Ricoeur, P. The French Journal of Communication, 3 2 : Evanston, Northwestern University Press. La conscience collective dans les societes SIlverman, D. Social relations in the clinic. London: Sage. Histoire et Strau ss, A 'A social world perspective', in N. Denzin ed. Durkheim, E. New York: Free Press. Strauss: A, Fagerhaugh, S. Thevenot, L. Des choses en personne', Geneses, Favret-Saada, J.
Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. Thrasher, F. Weil S. Umversity of Wh te, W. Chicago: The Chicago Press. Building bridges Young, A. The possibility of analytic dialog ue between ethnog raphy, conversation analysis and Foucault. Gale Miller and Kathryn J. This chapter extends and elaborates the analytic potential of qualitative research by considering how it may be used to construct bridges between different approaches to social life, particularly perspectives that focus on macro- and microscopic issues.
The analysis deals with the ways in which the microsociological insights of ethnomethodology Garfinkel, ; Heritage, ; Mehan and Wood, ; Zimmerman, and conversation analysis Atkinson and Heritage, ; Boden and Zimmerman, ; Button and Lee, ; Sacks, ; Sacks et al.
Our aim is to explicate the parallels between the various approaches, bringing both their differences and similarities into relief. Rather than promising an exhaustive discussion of each methodological approach, this chapter will explore particular relevant features of each approach that inform the associations we make.
It is our hope to show how aspects of Foucauldian scholarship, for example, share common themes with ethnomethodology and conversation analysis. We use the bridging metaphor self-consciously.
Bridges link distinctive land formations, making it possible for people to traverse between them. While opening new opportunities for residents on each side, bridges do not blend the formations or otherwise make them indistinguishable. The same conditions hold for this analysis. The analysis is also intended to identify the areas of greatest complementarity between these distinctive perspectives and methodological strategies.
This goal may be contrasted with triangulation, a research strategy that involves using several methods to reveal multiple aspects of a single empirical reality Denzin, A major assumption of the triangulation strategy is that. In other about the object. The bridging approach discussed here dIffers relationships to institutions similar to the Foucauldian notion that discourse from triangulation in its focus on using several methodological strategies to conditions our possible understandings.
Next, we treat the concerns, object! Their empirical focus is also reflected in the of ethnomethodology, conversation analysis, FoucauldIan dIscourse studIes differing methodological strategies associated with each perspective. The separately in order to establish correspondence between them.
In addition, strategies are designed to produce data that might be used to apply, extend, we will demonstrate the ways in which the questions that researchers ask and elaborate on issues that are central to the perspectives. While some and the sites they choose for study establish some parallels as well between proponents of these perspectives and strategies describe their research as these various methodologies. We conclude by discussing what can be gained inductive e.
Thus, they are influenced by researchers' assumptions about social reality and methodological practices. These ethnographies focus on the ways in which everyday life discourse studies for this chapter centers in their concerns for how language is organized within, and through, language. They involve attending to both and knowledge are related and are constitutive aspects of social life. Each the discursive categories and practices associated with social settings, and of these perspectives stresses how social life may be organized within multiple how setting members use them sometimes in distinctive ways to achieve social realities as well as how the realities are socially constructed through their practical ends.
The concept of reflexivity refers to the ways in which vanety of social realities. Situationally "provided" discourses shape and guide our portrayals of social realities simultaneously describe and constitute the but do not determine what might be said in social settings Silverman, realities Garfinkel, Our descriptions of social realities, then, cannot Social realities are always locally constructed and contingent.
They are be separated from the objects, persons, or circumstances that they describe or "built up" through setting members' organization and use of the discursive the languages that we use to describe them. This analytic focus has, at least, two major implications for qualitative ordinary language philosophy , ethnomethodology and conversation analysis SOCIOlogists' orientations to their research.
Foucauldian dIscourse studIes, groups. Schwartz and Jacobs aptly and Kellner, The ethnography of institutional discourse, on the other hand, better might be characterized as moving from the "top down" from culturally fIts WI. An example is the following statement Second, ethnographies of institutional discourse extend the long-standing made by Angela about K. Frequently perhaps iii while K insisted that she had to swim 30 laps. Smith, 43 usually , qualitative researchers combine these observational strategies with other qualitative methods, such as interviews and life histories.
But the focus of methodologists, however, such descriptive practices are reality-creating discursively oriented ethnographers' observations is different from those activities through which behaviors, circumstances, and persons are cast of other qualitative researchers. The latter research topic assumes lying Angela's description are that mental illness is a departure from what that everyday life is organized within relatively stable and integrated ways might be called a normal state of mind, and that signs of mental health and of life Unruh, Qualitative researchers of social worlds use observational illness may be discerned from persons' behavior.
Discursively of persons in many of his texts. His attraction to the memoir of Pierre Riviere focused research on social settings, on the other hand, emphasizes how social reflects a preoccupation similar to those of ethnomethodologists. The case realities are always under construction. It considers how setting members of Riviere, a man who murdered his family in the nineteenth century, includes continually assemble and use the interactional and interpretive resources accounts by judges, villagers, the mayor, Riviere himself, among others.
Another ethnomethodologically interesting feature of Smith's account of We elaborate on these issues in the next three sections by discussing Angela involves its reflexivity and localness. Angela uses the account to some of the major emphases of ethnomethodology, conversation analysis, and construct a world in which she and K are assigned distinct, contrastive, and Foucauldian discourse studies.
The discussion is selective, emphasizing those hierarchical positions and identities. The account is local because its meaning is inextricably them. Later, we use this discussion to identify areas of complementarity lInked to the practical circumstances in which it was voiced and interpreted between the perspectives, and then consider how they might be bridged by others. Thus, Angela's description might not always be treated as evidence of K's mental illness. The methods of special interest to ethnomethodologists are commItment to athletic excellence or to recovering from her accident.
Smith ,? These studies analyze how are assigned to mental illness categories by way of contrast structures. Prosecuting and defense attorneys meet to negotiate the ;sychiatry, psychology is formed and acts in relation to institutions and the roles charges to be made against defendants in this case Delaney and punishments prescribed in them.
Emerson and Messinger , for exautple, analyze how trou? PD2: Okay uh is there an offer in Delaney? DA3: Yeah plea to Mal M ish and uh uhm modest fine and uh restitution as a micropolitical process. They explain that orgamzatlOnal. PD2: Fifty dollars? DA3: Yes. Maynard, 1 80 methods are not equally available to orgamzatlOnal offICials. First, notice how PD2 line 1 opens that they are rejected in favor of more typIcal responses If only one settmg the interaction by stating "OK," thus marking off the previous discussion from member speaks against them.
It signals PD2' s and DA3' s readiness to move to a new topic about social settings and processes, and the types of data that th. As the above discussion suggests, ethnomethodologlsts are m? Conversation analysis is a context-sensitive approach to the study of reality notes the details of setting members' interactions. It focuses on the details and contingencies of social to the methodological strategies of conversation analysis.
Most obviously, they orient to the interaction as a set of turn-taking sequences focuses on the social organization of talk-m-mteractlOn, the mteractlOnal and by waiting for, and then taking, their speaking turns in the interaction. They interpretive competencies of the interactants, and how they collaborate to also display general understandings about how conversational topics are construct social realities. In its most the pause to manage a conversational shift. Arney and Bergen circumstances associated with talk and reality construction in institutional elaborate on thIS pOint in their discussion of medical discourse as settings.
They state: aspects of ordinary conversations, and how interactants assemble them m It is m? The medical discourse is a set of patterns and social relationships are encouraged over others Atkinson and rules that enables facts to become facts for both physicians and patients. Further, the patterns and relationships associated with patIents can speak about as important. Indeed, we might extend this analysis study, exa,mines the small ways that utterances reveal grabs for power in by considering how these communication formats are both contexts of, and the mmutla of talk.
Thus, power is produced within the struggle over it. While politically or elongated by speakers, and the direction of interactants' gazes. Foucault uses the term discourse to analyze more than language. While Ethnomethodologists, conversation analysts, and Foucauldian scholars orient ruptures that occur when new discourses emerge and l settings involving to, and rely upon, empirical data to develop their perspectives. The data not directly applicable to qualitative studies of socia urse studies is still analyz.
The analyses are theory-constructing activities in relevant to qualitative research. At the least, it remindsdisco ntinuities might WhiCh data are a central focus.
Thesemem move between bers ally. Whatever the form of the data,culturally stand ardized collected through observational methods.
This analysis was successful because studies involve treating the data as expressions of l settings. Foucauldian Holstein brought an appreciation of the significance of talk-in-interaction discourses that are associated with particular sociaassumptions, categories, to his fieldwork. While these data are not so richly detailed as those that researchers scrutinize their data, looking for related urses.
While he does not cite Foucault, used by setting members to articulate and apply discourses to concr McHoul x casts his project in a Foucauldian language when he states, persons, and events.
The discursive order. These areas are, of course, easier to see in comparing data. While different in their empirical and analytic aims, each of these ethnomethodology and conversation analysis because they are informed studies considers how social life is organized within institutional discourses, by the same intellectual traditions, address similar questions, and focus on and how knowledge and power are implicated in them. They advance the similar aspects of everyday life.
They are similar, for example, in their concern Foucauldian project by linking it to qualitative researchers' interests in for how social realities are "built up" and sustained. Unlike Foucauldian the social organization of everyday life. The analytic in concrete social situations use to construct realities.
The next two sections concerns. Of course, it is easy to take this claim too far, analysis, on the one hand, and Foucauldian discourse studies, on the other. The focus here is on how There are several recent examples of how qualitative researchers have discourses and their associated interpretive and interactional practices change comparatively analyzed institutional settings, and addressed analytical over time.
This strategy might be useful in observing the disjunctures or issues in the process. Gubrium's ethnographic studies of two family ruptures that Foucault emphasizes in his historical studies of social change, therapy clinics is an example. While less dramatic than studies of them as family system problems and in the other as emotional troubles.
While ethnomethodo]ogy, conversation methodological, conversation analytic, and Foucauldian concerns. In this analysis, and Foucauldian discourse studies are distinctive approaches to these case, the researchers collected their data independent of one another, and issues, comparative qualitative research that bridges them provides analysts then collaborated by analyzing the continuities and discontinuities in the data. They pursue the latter goal by treating their data as venues for exploring situational and transsituational aspects of counseling discourse, settings, and practices.
The study is based on extensive providing answers. Thus, asking questions that address themes that are observations of everyday life in the organization and analysis of audio tapes of legal proceedings concerned with dispute resolution. The questIOns allow qualitative researchers to focus on aspects of the on the ways in which conflicts and disputes are differently orgamzed as perspectives that are - at least potentially - compatible.
This study, then, offers a distinctive view of the conditions of are products of individual initiative or are shaped by larger social forces. Ethnomethodologists and conversation analysts might be seen as stressing Miller and Holstein , consider how organizational settings are age.
The study considers the ways in which Foucauldian discourse studies, on the other hand, might be interpreted disagreements are changed as they are configured and reconfigure?
They analyze, for example, how dIScourses that predominate in social settings. Dunn's with institutional settings and talk. These studies provide both data and initial portrayal of her earnings as necessary to maintaining the household. Similarly, agency analysts might "broaden" their analyses "to include large-scale discourses is an aspect of Foucauldian inspired qualitative studies such as Conley and that influence the ways interaction is accomplished" while not reducing O'Barr's which consider how institutional actors "artfully" enter "speakers to the puppets of these macrolevel forces.
Agency and constraint are not mutually exclusive issues involves noticing and analyzing the "underdog" methods and strategies in these studies, then, but coterminous aspects of the settings under study and that marginalized groups and individuals use in countering claims based on appropriate topics for study in their own right. The issues are central A related example of how qualitative researchers might study agency and to Foucauldian studies of discourse, knowledge, and power.
Foucauldian constraint as coterminous aspects of everyday life is Chase's analysis scholars treat gender, race, and class as aspects of unequal power relations. Chase displays an ethnomethodological awareness in describing the and activities, that is, as power relations. Within our power relations, we social contexts of her interviews with the superintendents.
She stresses that discursively construct realities that justify and sustain gendered, racialized, it is not enough to pay attention to what the superintendents say about and class-based inequalities. This approach to discourse and power resonates their lives and experiences. Chase x adds that qualitative researchers with Smith's , institutional ethnography approach to these issues. Rather, they are produced and sustained telling. The studies might intendents in their professional lives.
Chase notes that ences in power and privilege. Smith's previously discussed analysis of the women in her study were confident and adept at using both discourses contrast structures and mental illness is an example of such bridging.
This changed, however, when the superintendents For Smith, these contrast structures and related interpretive practices are were asked to link the discourses. Chase 11 analyzes this request aspects of larger political relations that express and sustain psychiatric as creating a discursive disjunction because "talk about professional work power and patriarchy. Chase further develops this theme by analyzing the various narrative Central to Miller's analysis is the Foucauldian assumption that power infuses strategies that the superintendents used to manage the disjuncture between all talk and therefore all talk is political.
The segment under analysis began the discourses of professional success and social inequality. Her analysis when the interviewer asked Mrs. Dunn's earnings for the household budget Brannen and Moss, Dunn first dISJ uncture. These skills are often taken for granted in Foucauldian and stated, "I think it's quite necessary," but in the end, she says, "Yes, I suppose? Further, the it is for luxuries.
Another example of how analytic bridges may be built by asking questions One advantage of the bridging metaphor is that it avoids the imagery of is Jackson'S recent ethnography of Harlemworld. The bridging approach offered here seeks upon Foucauldian discourse studies in developmg hIS ,analyttc perspectJ ve.
To that end, we conclude by discussing two general methodology. Put differently, Jackson defmes research. Jackson The first implication involves the selection of minimally compatible 4 explains that perspectives. All sociological perspectives are not equally amenable to the sort of linkage that we describe here. RacIal which they wish to link through their research, such as we have done in identity is predicated on perceptions of particular social actIOns and IS shored noting the complementary emphases in ethnomethodology, conversation up with recourse to specific kinds of activities.
Racial "location" is not contingent analysis, and Foucauldian discourse studies. Second, qualitative researchers' bridging projects must include the analysis of data about research sites. While the qualitative research tradition includes Jackson's study has important implications for the ethnomethodologi.
The study provides a starting point for studymg should not be separated from the empirical focus of the tradition. Jackson'S ethnography also details the varia. Acknowledging that qualitative data are social constructions, however, Barrett , too, demonstrates the embodiment of reahty does not render them theoretically useless or irrelevant see, for example, in his study of schizophrenic "cases.
Rather, acknowledgment recasts them as aspects of chiatric teams" made up of psychiatrists, social workers, and psychIatnc a distinctive discourse that treats the practices of everyday life as worthy topics nursing staff variously construct a single schizophrenic patient differently of analysis.
It also reminds qualitative sociologists that while theory is - by as a "segmented case," a "fully worked-up case," or a "whole person". Barrett definition - abstract, it should also speak to issues that are recognizable as 19 fuses phenomenology and Foucauldian discourse studies insofar features of persons' everyday lives and social worlds.
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Heritage, John Garfinkel and Ethnomethodology. Cambridge: Polity Press. Atkinson, J. Maxwell and John Heritage, eds.
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